Biotechnology
60 flashcards covering Biotechnology for the MCAT Biology & Biochemistry section.
Biotechnology is the application of living organisms, cells, and biological systems to develop useful products and processes. For instance, it includes techniques like genetic engineering to create medicines, such as insulin from bacteria, or to improve crops for better yields. This field bridges biology and technology, addressing challenges in health, agriculture, and environmental sustainability, making it essential for understanding modern scientific advancements.
On the MCAT, biotechnology questions typically appear in the Biology and Biochemistry section, often as multiple-choice items involving experimental passages, data analysis, or ethical scenarios. You'll need to grasp concepts like recombinant DNA, PCR, and gene cloning, while avoiding common traps such as mixing up vectors with plasmids or overlooking regulatory issues. Focus on mechanisms, applications in medicine, and their societal impacts to tackle these questions effectively.
A solid tip: Practice linking biotech techniques to real-world ethical dilemmas.
Terms (60)
- 01
DNA Replication
The process by which a cell duplicates its DNA before cell division, involving enzymes like DNA polymerase to create two identical DNA molecules from one original strand.
- 02
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A technique used to amplify specific DNA segments through repeated cycles of heating and cooling, involving denaturation, annealing, and extension steps to produce millions of copies.
- 03
Restriction Enzymes
Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, creating fragments that can be used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
- 04
Gel Electrophoresis
A method that separates DNA, RNA, or proteins based on size and charge by applying an electric field to a gel matrix, allowing visualization of fragments.
- 05
Recombinant DNA
DNA molecules formed by combining genetic material from different sources, often using vectors to insert foreign genes into host organisms for expression.
- 06
Cloning
The process of making identical copies of a DNA fragment, cell, or organism, commonly achieved through vectors and host cells in biotechnology.
- 07
Gene Expression
The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein, involving transcription and translation.
- 08
Transcription
The synthesis of RNA from a DNA template by RNA polymerase, a key step in gene expression that copies genetic information for protein production.
- 09
Translation
The process in which ribosomes read mRNA sequences to assemble amino acids into proteins, using tRNA to match codons with specific amino acids.
- 10
Plasmids
Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria that can replicate independently and are used as vectors to carry foreign genes in genetic engineering.
- 11
Vectors
DNA molecules, such as plasmids or viruses, used to deliver foreign genetic material into host cells for cloning or gene therapy purposes.
- 12
Southern Blotting
A technique that detects specific DNA sequences by separating DNA fragments via gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and hybridizing with a labeled probe.
- 13
Northern Blotting
A method to detect specific RNA sequences by separating RNA via gel electrophoresis, transferring to a membrane, and using a complementary probe for identification.
- 14
Western Blotting
A technique that identifies specific proteins by separating proteins via gel electrophoresis, transferring to a membrane, and detecting with antibodies.
- 15
CRISPR-Cas9
A gene-editing tool derived from bacterial immune systems that uses guide RNA and Cas9 enzyme to precisely cut and modify DNA sequences in organisms.
- 16
Gene Therapy
A medical approach that introduces functional genes into a patient's cells to treat or prevent disease, often using vectors to deliver corrective DNA.
- 17
Stem Cells
Undifferentiated cells capable of developing into various cell types, used in biotechnology for research, tissue repair, and potential therapeutic applications.
- 18
Transgenic Organisms
Organisms that have had foreign genes inserted into their genome, resulting in new traits, such as bacteria producing human insulin.
- 19
Knockout Genes
A technique that disables a specific gene in an organism to study its function, often using homologous recombination or CRISPR.
- 20
PCR Primers
Short, single-stranded DNA sequences that bind to target DNA and initiate the polymerase chain reaction by providing a starting point for DNA synthesis.
- 21
DNA Sequencing
Methods like Sanger sequencing that determine the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule, essential for genetic analysis and research.
- 22
Electrophoresis Principles
The movement of charged molecules through a medium under an electric field, based on size, shape, and charge, used to separate biomolecules.
- 23
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Variations in DNA fragment lengths after restriction enzyme digestion, used as genetic markers for identification and disease linkage studies.
- 24
cDNA
Complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template using reverse transcriptase, commonly used in gene cloning and expression studies.
- 25
Reverse Transcriptase
An enzyme from retroviruses that synthesizes DNA from an RNA template, enabling the creation of cDNA for molecular biology applications.
- 26
Taq Polymerase
A heat-stable DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus bacteria, used in PCR to withstand high temperatures without denaturing.
- 27
Denaturation in PCR
The first step in PCR where double-stranded DNA is heated to separate into single strands, typically at 94-98°C, to allow primer binding.
- 28
Annealing in PCR
The step in PCR where primers bind to their complementary sequences on single-stranded DNA, usually at a lower temperature around 50-65°C.
- 29
Extension in PCR
The phase in PCR where DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the primers, synthesizing new DNA strands at a temperature optimal for the enzyme, about 72°C.
- 30
Ethical Issues in Cloning
Concerns in biotechnology about the moral implications of human cloning, including consent, identity, and potential misuse, which may appear in MCAT passages.
- 31
Biotechnology in Medicine
The application of biological techniques to develop medical treatments, such as producing recombinant proteins or engineering cells for disease therapy.
- 32
Insulin Production via Biotech
The use of genetically modified bacteria to produce human insulin by inserting the insulin gene into plasmids, a key example of recombinant DNA technology.
- 33
Golden Rice
A genetically engineered rice variety that produces beta-carotene, aimed at addressing vitamin A deficiency, illustrating transgenic plant applications.
- 34
PCR Applications
Uses of PCR in diagnostics, forensics, and research to amplify DNA for detecting pathogens, genetic disorders, or identifying individuals.
- 35
DNA Fingerprinting
A technique using RFLP or PCR to analyze unique DNA patterns for identification, such as in paternity testing or criminal investigations.
- 36
Microarrays
Tools that measure the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously by hybridizing labeled cDNA to a grid of DNA probes on a chip.
- 37
Proteomics
The large-scale study of proteins, including their structures and functions, often using techniques like mass spectrometry in biotechnology research.
- 38
Genomics
The study of an organism's complete set of DNA, including sequencing and analysis, which informs biotechnology applications like personalized medicine.
- 39
Epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence, such as DNA methylation, relevant to biotechnology and disease.
- 40
Fermentation
A metabolic process where microorganisms convert sugars into acids, gases, or alcohol, used in biotechnology for producing foods, drugs, and biofuels.
- 41
Bioremediation
The use of microorganisms to degrade or remove pollutants from the environment, a biotechnology application for cleaning up oil spills or toxic waste.
- 42
Monoclonal Antibodies
Identical antibodies produced from a single clone of cells, used in diagnostics and therapy to target specific antigens in diseases like cancer.
- 43
Hybridoma Technology
A method to produce monoclonal antibodies by fusing antibody-producing cells with myeloma cells, creating immortal cell lines for continuous production.
- 44
Vaccines and Biotech
The development of vaccines using recombinant DNA to express antigens, such as in hepatitis B vaccine, to stimulate immune responses without causing disease.
- 45
Antibiotic Resistance and Biotech
The evolution of bacteria that resist antibiotics, studied in biotechnology to develop new drugs and strategies to combat resistance through genetic engineering.
- 46
PCR Troubleshooting
Common issues in PCR like non-specific amplification or low yield, which can be addressed by optimizing primer design, annealing temperature, or reagent concentrations.
- 47
Contamination in PCR
The presence of unwanted DNA that leads to false results, a key concern in PCR requiring clean techniques and controls to ensure accuracy.
- 48
Specificity of Primers
The ability of PCR primers to bind only to the intended target sequence, crucial for avoiding errors in amplification and ensuring reliable results.
- 49
Thermal Cycler
A machine that automates PCR by cycling through precise temperature changes for denaturation, annealing, and extension to amplify DNA.
- 50
Agarose Gel
A porous matrix used in gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragments based on size, with fragments visualized using dyes like ethidium bromide.
- 51
Site-Directed Mutagenesis
A technique to introduce specific mutations into a DNA sequence using PCR or other methods, allowing study of gene function and protein engineering.
- 52
Expression Vectors
Plasmids designed to promote the expression of inserted genes in host cells, including promoters and regulatory elements for protein production.
- 53
Reporter Genes
Genes like GFP or luciferase used in experiments to indicate the activity of a promoter or regulatory element by producing a detectable product.
- 54
Bioinformatics
The use of computer software and databases to analyze biological data, such as DNA sequences, aiding in biotechnology research and drug discovery.
- 55
BLAST Search
A bioinformatics tool that compares a query DNA or protein sequence against databases to find similarities, helping identify gene functions.
- 56
Protein Purification
Techniques like chromatography to isolate specific proteins from a complex mixture, essential in biotechnology for studying or producing proteins.
- 57
Chromatography in Biotech
Separation methods based on differences in protein properties, such as size or charge, used to purify biomolecules for research and manufacturing.
- 58
ELISA
An assay that uses antibodies to detect and quantify proteins or antigens in a sample, widely applied in diagnostics and biotechnology.
- 59
Flow Cytometry
A technique that analyzes and sorts cells based on their physical and chemical characteristics using lasers, useful in biotechnology for cell research.
- 60
Transfection
The process of introducing foreign DNA into eukaryotic cells using methods like electroporation or chemical agents, for gene expression studies.