Circular reasoning
60 flashcards covering Circular reasoning for the LSAT Logical Reasoning section.
Circular reasoning is a logical fallacy where an argument assumes its own conclusion as evidence, creating a loop rather than providing real support. For example, claiming "This policy is effective because it works" doesn't explain why it works—it just restates the point. This error undermines arguments by lacking independent proof, making it a key concept in critical thinking and essential for evaluating claims on exams like the LSAT.
On the LSAT, circular reasoning frequently appears in Logical Reasoning questions, especially those identifying flaws, strengthening or weakening arguments, or analyzing assumptions. Common traps include mistaking it for a valid restatement or overlooking subtle rephrasing of the conclusion. Focus on spotting when premises merely echo the claim without new evidence, as this helps eliminate wrong answers and improves your ability to dissect complex arguments.
Watch for arguments that use the conclusion as its own proof.
Terms (60)
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Circular reasoning
Circular reasoning is a logical fallacy where an argument assumes its own conclusion as a premise, essentially restating the claim in different words without providing supporting evidence.
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Begging the question
Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning where the conclusion is included in the premise, making the argument tautological and unpersuasive because it doesn't advance the discussion.
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Petitio principii
Petitio principii, the Latin term for circular reasoning, occurs when an argument's premise relies on the truth of the conclusion, rendering it invalid as it fails to offer independent proof.
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Circular argument structure
In a circular argument structure, the reasoning loops back on itself, using the claim to justify the claim, which means it cannot establish the truth of the statement.
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How circular reasoning fails to persuade
Circular reasoning fails to persuade because it does not provide new evidence or logical steps; instead, it merely repeats the conclusion, leaving the argument unsupported.
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Circular reasoning in everyday language
In everyday language, circular reasoning appears when someone defends a statement by restating it, such as saying something is true just because they believe it, without external validation.
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Circular definitions
Circular definitions occur when a term is defined using itself or its equivalent, making the definition useless for understanding because it doesn't clarify the concept.
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Circular logic in proofs
Circular logic in proofs happens when a proof assumes the theorem it aims to prove, resulting in a flawed demonstration that doesn't genuinely establish the result.
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The role of assumptions in circular reasoning
Assumptions in circular reasoning act as hidden premises that mirror the conclusion, preventing the argument from being logically sound or convincing.
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Identifying circularity in premises
Identifying circularity in premises involves checking if any premise essentially restates the conclusion, which indicates the argument is not advancing valid reasoning.
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Circular reasoning vs. tautologies
Use circular reasoning to describe fallacious arguments that loop back on themselves, and tautologies for statements that are always true by definition, like 'All bachelors are unmarried'.
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Effects of circular reasoning on validity
Circular reasoning undermines the validity of an argument by making it impossible to verify, as it relies on unproven claims, leading to conclusions that are not logically defensible.
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Circular reasoning in deductive arguments
In deductive arguments, circular reasoning invalidates the deduction because the premises do not provide a basis independent of the conclusion, breaking the chain of logical necessity.
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Circular reasoning in inductive arguments
Circular reasoning in inductive arguments weakens the induction by using the conclusion to support the evidence, making it unreliable for drawing generalizations.
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Historical examples of circular reasoning
Historical examples of circular reasoning include philosophical debates where thinkers assumed their position's truth to prove it, highlighting how it has long been recognized as a flaw.
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Circular reasoning in legal contexts
In legal contexts, circular reasoning might involve justifying a law by saying it is law, which fails to address its merits and can undermine judicial reasoning.
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Psychological aspects of circular arguments
Psychological aspects of circular arguments include how they can stem from confirmation bias, where individuals reinforce their beliefs without external evidence.
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Why circular reasoning is a fallacy
Circular reasoning is a fallacy because it does not meet the criteria for sound argumentation, as it provides no new information and cannot be tested or falsified.
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Example: The Bible is true because it says so
This is circular reasoning because the argument uses the Bible's own claims to prove its truth, offering no independent evidence and thus failing to establish validity.
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Example: I'm trustworthy because I say I am
This exemplifies circular reasoning as it relies on the speaker's self-assertion to prove trustworthiness, creating a loop that doesn't provide external verification.
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Example: A policy is good because experts endorse it
Here, circular reasoning occurs if experts' endorsement is based on the policy's goodness, assuming what needs to be proven without additional support.
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Example: Circular reasoning in advertising
In advertising, circular reasoning might claim a product is the best because it says so, using the product's own marketing to justify its superiority without evidence.
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Example: You should believe me because I'm right
This is circular because it defends the speaker's correctness by asserting it, looping back without providing reasons to accept the claim.
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Example: Defining a word with itself
Defining 'sleep' as 'the state of sleeping' is circular reasoning, as it uses the term in its own definition, failing to offer meaningful clarification.
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Example: The law is just because it's the law
This example shows circular reasoning by justifying a law's justice solely on its existence, without examining its content or effects.
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Example: Assuming a theory to prove itself
In science, assuming a theory is true to demonstrate its validity is circular reasoning, as it presupposes the conclusion in the proof process.
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Example: Political arguments using circularity
A political argument like 'This candidate is qualified because they were chosen' is circular, as the selection process assumes the qualification it claims to prove.
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Example: Personal anecdotes as circular proof
Using a personal story to prove a point by saying it happened because it did is circular, relying on the anecdote's self-reference without broader evidence.
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Example: Circular reasoning in philosophy
In philosophy, claiming 'God exists because the scriptures say so, and scriptures are divine because God inspired them' is circular, as each part depends on the other.
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Example: Circular reasoning in logic puzzles
A logic puzzle solution that states 'This is the answer because it fits' without further justification demonstrates circular reasoning by assuming the fit proves itself.
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Mistake: Confusing circular reasoning with repetition
Students often mistake repetition for circular reasoning, but repetition alone isn't fallacious unless it uses the repeated statement as proof without new evidence.
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Mistake: Thinking all assumptions are circular
A common error is assuming any argument with premises is circular, but only those where premises mirror the conclusion are truly circular.
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Mistake: Failing to spot hidden circularity
Failing to spot hidden circularity happens when students overlook premises that subtly restate the conclusion, leading to misidentification of valid arguments.
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Mistake: Equating circular reasoning with tautologies
Equating circular reasoning with tautologies is wrong because tautologies are inherently true statements, while circular reasoning is a flawed argumentative structure.
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Mistake: Overlooking circularity in complex arguments
In complex arguments, students might overlook circularity by focusing on details, missing how the overall structure loops back on itself.
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Mistake: Misidentifying valid self-referential statements
Misidentifying valid self-referential statements, like mathematical identities, as circular reasoning ignores their established truth within their systems.
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Mistake: Applying circular reasoning label too broadly
Applying the circular reasoning label too broadly can lead students to dismiss legitimate arguments that build on prior knowledge rather than loop fallaciously.
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Mistake: Not distinguishing from other fallacies
Not distinguishing circular reasoning from fallacies like ad hominem results in confusion, as circularity specifically involves self-referential premises, not personal attacks.
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Mistake: Ignoring context in arguments
Ignoring context in arguments might make students wrongly label something as circular when the premises are independently supported in their specific setting.
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Circular reasoning vs. Begging the question
Use circular reasoning for arguments that loop premises and conclusions, and begging the question as a subset where the premise directly assumes the conclusion.
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Circular reasoning vs. Ad hominem
Use circular reasoning for self-referential loops and ad hominem for attacks on the person rather than the argument, as they are distinct ways arguments can fail.
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Circular reasoning vs. Straw man
Apply circular reasoning to arguments that assume their own truth, and straw man to misrepresentations of opponents' positions for easy refutation.
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Circular reasoning vs. Valid circular definitions in math
Use circular reasoning for flawed logic and valid circular definitions in math for established systems like recursive functions that are not fallacious.
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Circular reasoning vs. Recursive definitions
Distinguish circular reasoning as a fallacy from recursive definitions, which are useful in programming and math when they build progressively rather than loop.
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Circular reasoning vs. Self-fulfilling prophecies
Use circular reasoning for logical fallacies and self-fulfilling prophecies for predictions that influence outcomes, though they can overlap in practice.
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Circular reasoning vs. A priori assumptions
Apply circular reasoning to unsupported loops and a priori assumptions to knowledge based on reason alone, which can be valid if not self-referential.
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Circular reasoning vs. Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Use circular reasoning for premise-conclusion loops and post hoc ergo propter hoc for assuming causation from sequence, as they address different logical errors.
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Circular reasoning vs. Non sequitur
Rely on circular reasoning for self-referential flaws and non sequitur for conclusions that don't follow from premises, highlighting unrelated issues.
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When not to call something circular: Self-evident truths
Do not label self-evident truths, like 'A equals A,' as circular reasoning because they are foundational and not attempting to prove themselves through argument.
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Exceptions: Circular reasoning in mathematics
In mathematics, circular reasoning is an exception in axiomatic systems where certain assumptions are accepted as starting points, not as proofs of themselves.
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Subtle circularity in empirical evidence
Subtle circularity can occur in empirical evidence if data is used to confirm the hypothesis that generated it, but it's not always circular if independently verified.
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Arguments that appear circular but are not
Some arguments appear circular due to shorthand but are not if they rely on established facts, so examine the full context before dismissing them.
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Circular reasoning in infinite regresses
Infinite regresses can involve circular reasoning if they loop back, but they are not always circular if they represent ongoing processes without closure.
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When circular definitions are acceptable
Circular definitions are acceptable in certain contexts, like dictionaries cross-referencing related terms, as long as they don't impede overall understanding.
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Strategy for identifying circular reasoning on the LSAT
To identify circular reasoning on the LSAT, look for arguments where the conclusion is restated in the premises and practice breaking down stimulus language for hidden loops.
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How to eliminate answer choices involving circularity
Eliminate answer choices on the LSAT that involve circularity by checking if they assume the question's conclusion, focusing on options with independent evidence.
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Time-saving tips for spotting circular arguments
For spotting circular arguments quickly on the LSAT, scan for keywords like 'because' that link back to the main claim without new support, saving time on questions.
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Practicing with circular reasoning questions
Practice with circular reasoning questions on the LSAT by reviewing past exams and noting patterns, which builds familiarity and speeds up recognition during the test.
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Integrating circular reasoning into overall reasoning skills
Integrate circular reasoning detection into overall LSAT reasoning skills by combining it with flaw identification, enhancing your ability to critique arguments holistically.
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Using process of elimination for circularity-based questions
Use process of elimination on LSAT questions about circularity by ruling out answers that introduce new evidence, focusing on those that merely restate the flaw.